Here you will find an archive of previous articles relating to health care and safety. 

Since World War II, many significant technological advancements have occurred within the telecommunications and other industries. One of these is the increased use of radio frequency, i.e., microwave and radio wave radiation equipment. Such equipment is widely used in the broadcasting and communications fields in the form of cellular telephones and towers; in the health care industry for medical treatment; in the food industry for the processing and cooking of food; in the wood, textile, and glass fiber industries for drying materials; and in the automotive, electrical, rubber, and plastic products industries for fusing and sealing operations.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) estimates that millions of American workers work with and are exposed to radio frequency radiation equipment. CWA members who are exposed to radio frequency radiation include telecommunications microwave and radio wave service technicians and outside plant technicians, operators of computers, employees who use microwave ovens at work, radio frequency radiation equipment operators, manufacturing workers, and workers who come in contact with or who operate medical diathermy equipment.

Radio frequency, i.e., microwave and radio wave radiation, is a specific component of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio frequency radiation is in the non-ionizing portion of the spectrum. Non-ionizing radiation includes the lower frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum such as ultraviolet and visible light, infrared, microwave and radio wave (See Table I).



Electromagnetic radiation consists of vibrating electric and magnetic energy or fields moving through space. For example, electric current in a transmitter circuit establishes electric and magnetic fields in the region around it. As the electric current moves back and forth, the fields continue to build up and collapse, forming electromagnetic radiation. This electromagnetic radiation is characterized in terms of the wavelength and the frequency of vibration.

Microwave and radio wave radiation may be categorized as continuous waves (e.g., communications equipment), intermittent (microwave ovens, medical diathermy equipment, and radio frequency equipment), or pulsed mode (radar systems). Microwave and radio frequency radiation may be transmitted, reflected, or absorbed upon striking an object.

When measuring radio frequency radiation emissions, the power of the source should be measured by the intensity of the field. Intensity should be measured in terms of power density. Power density is the amount of energy carried by radio frequency, i.e., microwave or radio wave, radiation as it proceeds each second through a square measure of space. The energy carried by microwave and radio wave radiation is expressed in terms of milliwatts per square centimeter (mW/cm (2) = 1/1,000 of a watt) or microwatts per square centimeter (uW/cm (2) = 1/1,000 of a milliwatt).

Health Effects

The various types of radiation affect the human body in different ways. For example, ionizing radiation, that contains a tremendous amount of energy and penetrating power, will cause changes in the body's molecular system. On the other hand, as noted, non-ionizing radiation operates at much lower frequencies and is not believed to be as harmful to the human body as ionizing radiation. The type of radiation to which affected CWA members are most often exposed is non-ionizing radiation, e.g., radio frequency, i.e., microwave and radio wave, radiation.

It is known, however, that exposure to non-ionizing radio frequency radiation may produce serious biological effects. As high frequency radio frequency radiation, i.e., microwave radiation, penetrates the body, the exposed molecules move about and collide with one another causing friction and, thus, heat. This is known as thermal effect. If the radiation is powerful enough, the tissue or skin will be heated or burned. Such health effects may or may not be reversible, depending on the particular tissue or organ that is exposed, the intensity of the radiation, the frequency and duration of the exposure, the environmental temperature and humidity, and the body's efficiency in dissipating the heat.

At the present time, there is substantial scientific data that establishes negative health effects associated with microwave radiation. For example, it has been demonstrated that microwave radiation may cause eye and testicular damage. These organs are highly vulnerable to radiation damage because they contain few blood vessels. Therefore, they are unable to circulate blood and dissipate the heat from radiation as effectively as other organs.

An additional health concern involves damage to the eyes. For example, several scientific investigations have shown that cataracts among humans and laboratory animals have occurred as a result of the intense heating of high frequency microwave radiation. Such data has revealed that a particularly important determinant in the causation of microwave radiation-induced cataracts is the time intervals between exposures, i.e., increased time intervals between exposures is thought to allow the body's repair or defense mechanism more opportunity to limit ocular lens damage.

As noted, microwave radiation may also cause damage to the male testes/reproductive organs. Specifically, scientists have demonstrated that exposure to microwave radiation may result in partial or permanent sterility. In addition, some scientific evidence suggests similar effects associated with microwave exposure and female reproductive problems. Furthermore, the scientific literature indicates a relationship between exposure to microwave radiation and birth defects, such as mongolism (Down's Syndrome) and central nervous system damage.

Exposure to radio wave radiation may result in a non-thermal reaction that causes similar molecular interactions as in the thermal effect, but without the heating of the exposed tissue or organ. The site of energy absorption varies with the frequency, that is, exposure to low frequency non-ionizing radio frequency radiation will (theoretically) penetrate the skin and cause molecular interactions similar to those caused by high frequency radio frequency radiation. Complicating such non-thermal reaction, the body's heat and warning system may not provide protection because the energy is absorbed at locations below the nerves.

Clearly, a review of the medical and scientific literature indicates a tremendous need for more scientific research. Such research should focus upon the effects of microwave and radio wave radiation upon humans. Particular emphasis needs to be directed at exposure to long-term, low-level biological effects of microwave and radio wave radiation. Such research is particularly important in order that the issue of exposure to potentially harmful microwave and radio wave radiation emissions from microwave and radio wave transmitters and human health effects might be more adequately determined.

An additional health concern regarding work with radio frequency equipment is potential electrical shock. This may occur when, under abnormal conditions, the operator is standing in water and comes into contact with a high-frequency generator circuit.

Controlling the Hazard

Employers must ensure that potentially exposed microwave and radio wave radiation workers have a safe and healthful workplace. This means that employers should implement engineering controls to minimize or eliminate potential exposure, conduct comprehensive training about the potentially hazardous working conditions, and institute medical surveillance programs.

The most effective way to eliminate and/or minimize occupational exposure to radio frequency microwave and radio wave radiation is through the use of engineering controls. For example, the source of the potential problem, i.e., the radiation-emitting equipment, should be enclosed or effectively shielded or the worker should be separated from the source. This requirement is equally important to all workers exposed to microwave and radio wave radiation. Where engineering controls cannot be implemented, personal protective equipment such as protective clothing and eyewear should be provided and utilized.

In addition, employers should provide comprehensive training regarding potentially hazardous working conditions. Such a program might consist of written and/or audio/visual materials that detail potential safety and health dangers, health effects of exposure, methods of control, first aid procedures, the use of hazard warning signs and labels, and the identification of restricted areas.

Employers should also institute medical surveillance programs that would provide workers with routine medical examinations specific to any biological effects resulting from occupational radio frequency radiation exposures. Potential benefits of medical surveillance would include: an assessment of employees' physical fitness to safely perform the work (consisting of a medical and occupational history as well as a physical examination), biological monitoring of exposure to a particular agent, and early detection of any biological damages or effects. In addition, documented health effects would allow the worker and her/his physician to make informed judgements about further exposures.

The OSHA Standard

The OSHA Standard for electromagnetic radiation (that does not cover low frequency radio frequency microwave or radio wave radiation) is 10mW/cm(2) (milliwatt per square centimeter) as averaged over any possible 0.1 hour period. This means the following:

Power Density: 10mW/cm(2) (milliwatt hour per square centimeter) for periods of 0.1 hour or more.
Energy Density: 1mW/cm(2) (milliwatt hour per square centimeter) during any 0.l hour period.

The Standard is based upon research conducted in 1953 examining the threshold for thermal (heat) damage to tissue. (Specifically, the amount of radiation that would cause cataract development). The power density necessary to produce cataracts was approximately 100 mW/cm(2) to which a safety factor of 10 was applied. Thus, a maximum permissible level of 10mW/cm(2) was established.

Unfortunately, as noted, the OSHA Standard does not provide coverage for low frequency radio frequency microwave and radio wave radiation. Therefore, given concerns among involved scientists and practitioners, three non-governmental organizations, e.g., the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), as well as the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), developed and issued two different voluntary guidelines on radio frequency microwave and radio wave radiation. In turn, in 1996 the Federal Communications Commission has translated these voluntary guidelines into recommended exposure criteria (See Table II).


 

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Employment Law Guide

Whistleblower Protection Provisions Enforced By OSHA

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) administers the employee protection (or "whistleblower") provisions of fourteen statutes.
 

Occupational Safety & Health Act (OSH Act), 29 USC § 660(c)
Surface Transportation Assistance Act (STAA), 49 USC § 31105
Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act (AHERA), 15 USC § 2651
International Safety Container Act (ISCA), 46 USC App. § 1506
Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 (ERA), 42 USC § 5851
Clean Air Act (CAA), 42 USC § 7622
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 42 USC § 300j-9(i)
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), 33 USC § 1367
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 15 USC § 2622
Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA), 42 USC § 6971
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), 42 USC § 9610
Wendell H. Ford Aviation Investment and Reform Act (AIR21), 49 USC § 42121
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOA), 18 USC § 1514A
Pipeline Safety Improvement Act (PSIA), 49 USC § 60129

Who is Covered

Under the OSH Act, employees who believe that their employer has discriminated or retaliated against them for raising or reporting safety or health concerns may file a complaint with OSHA. Under the STAA, employees in the trucking industry may file complaints with OSHA if they believe that their employer has discriminated against them for reporting safety concerns or for refusing to drive under dangerous circumstances or in violation of safety rules.

Similarly, under the other statutes, employees also may file complaints with OSHA if they believe that their employer has discriminated against them for reporting protected safety concerns involving the airline or pipeline industries, for reporting protected environmental concerns including asbestos in schools, or for reporting potential securities fraud.

The Department of Labor also enforces the anti-retaliation provisions of several other statutes that are not administered by OSHA. Information concerning many of these additional anti-retaliation statutes is available in other sections of the Guide describing the statutes enforced by different Department agencies, such as the Wage and Hour Division, the Employee Benefits Security Administration, and the Mine Safety and Health Administration.

Basic Provisions/Requirements

Generally, the employee protection provisions listed above prohibit an "employer" or any "person" (the definition of which may vary from statute to statute) from discharging or otherwise discriminating against any employee with respect to the employee's compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment because the employee engaged in specified "protected" activities.

The protected activities typically include: (1) initiating a proceeding under, or for the enforcement of, any of these statutes, or causing such a proceeding to be initiated; (2) testifying in any such proceeding; (3) assisting or participating in any such proceeding or in any other action to carry out the purposes of these statutes; or (4) complaining about a violation.

The ERA, the AIR21, the SOA, and the PSIA specifically cover an employee's internal complaints to his or her employer, and it is the Secretary's position, as set forth in regulations, that employees who express safety or quality assurance concerns internally to their employers are protected under the other whistleblower statutes. With the exception of the Fifth Circuit, the courts of appeals that have considered whether internal complaints are protected have agreed with the Secretary.

Employee Rights

An employee who believes that he or she has been discriminated against in violation of any of the statutes listed above may file a complaint with OSHA. Complaints must be filed within 30 days after the occurrence of the alleged violation under the OSH Act, the CAA, the CERCLA, the SWDA, the FWPCA, the SDWA, and the TSCA; within 60 days under the ISCA; within 90 days under the AIR21, the SOA, and the AHERA; and within 180 days under the STAA, the ERA, and the PSIA. Under the SOA, if the Secretary has not issued a final decision within 180 days of the filing of the complaint, and there is no showing that there has been delay due to the bad faith of the employee, the employee may bring an action at law or equity in district court.

Compliance Assistance Available

More detailed information, including copies of regulatory and interpretative materials, may be obtained from the nearest OSHA office. Addresses and telephone numbers for these offices are set forth in local directories and on OSHA's Web site.

Investigations/Penalties/Sanctions

Upon receipt of a timely complaint, OSHA notifies the employer and, if conciliation fails, conducts an investigation. Where OSHA finds that complaints filed under the OSH Act, the AHERA, and the ISCA have merit they are referred to the Solicitor's Office for legal action. Complaints under these three statutes found not to have merit will be dismissed.

Where OSHA finds a violation after investigating complaints under the other statutes listed above, it will issue a determination letter requiring the employer to pay back wages, reinstate the employee, reimburse the employee for attorney's and expert witness fees, and take other steps to provide necessary relief. Complaints found not to have merit will be dismissed.

Parties who object to OSHA's determinations under the statutes listed above (except for the OSH Act, the AHERA, and the ISCA) may request a hearing before the Department of Labor's Office of Administrative Law Judges (OALJ). Judges' decisions are reviewed by the Department of Labor's Administrative Review Board, which the Secretary has designated to issue final agency decisions.

Under the STAA, if OSHA finds in favor of the employee, litigation usually is conducted by the Solicitor's Office, but sometimes by the employee. Under the other statutes, litigation generally is conducted by the private parties themselves. Employers and employees may seek judicial review of an adverse ARB decision.

Under the AIR21, the SOA, and the PSIA, employees who file complaints frivolously or in bad faith may be liable for attorney's fees up to $1,000.

Relation to State, Local and Other Federal Laws

The Supreme Court has held that the employee protection provisions of the Energy Reorganization Act do not preempt existing state statutes and common law claims. The other statutes listed above should be consulted separately to determine whether or not their employee protection provisions are supplementary to protection provided by state laws.

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Thousands of workers die or are injured because of on-the-job accidents each year. Many more are exposed to unhealthy conditions that cause serious illnesses years later.

When does a worker have the right to refuse dangerous work?

On February 26, 1980, the United States Supreme Court issued a landmark ruling which more clearly defined a worker's right to refuse work where an employee(s) has (have) reasonable apprehension that death or serious injury or illness might occur as a result of performing the work. The unanimous decision came in a 1974 case against Whirlpool Corporation in which two workers refused to crawl out on a screen from which a co-worker had fallen to his death only nine days earlier. A Cincinnati, Ohio appeals court ruled in favor of the worker's rights in "Whirlpool" and the Supreme Court affirmed that decision. (At the time the Supreme Court took the Whirlpool case, there were two other appeals court rulings that had been decided the opposite way. These cases were issued by courts in New Orleans (1977) and Denver (1978).

The two workers in the "Whirlpool" case were told to go out on a screen 20 feet above the floor to retrieve small appliance parts which had fallen from a conveyor belt system above. The screen was in place to protect workers in the plant from falling parts. The retrieval assignment had resulted in other workers falling partially or completely through the screen. Claiming that the screen was unsafe, two employees refused to carry out the assignment. Whirlpool supervisors sent the workers home for the day and withheld about six hours pay.

In its decision, the court emphasized that the OSHAct provides a worker with the right to choose not to perform an assigned task due to reasonable apprehension of death or serious injury coupled with a reasonable belief that no less drastic alternative is available. Further, the Court held that a worker who utilizes this OSHAct protection may not be discriminated against for such action.

However, the Court also indicated that an employee who refused work based on the regulation runs the risk of discharge or reprimand in the event a court subsequently finds that she/he acted unreasonably or in bad faith.

As noted, the employer docked the two workers about six hours pay in the Whirlpool case. The Supreme Court ruled that the OSHAct does not require an employer to pay a worker who refuses to perform an assigned task in the face of imminent danger. Rather, the Act simply provides that in such cases the employer may not discriminate against the involved worker(s). Thus, the Court has left this issue to be decided by labor and management through collective bargaining. Members of unions that do not negotiate the necessary protective language in their contracts should not expect to be paid for the refusal to work period. This will be true even where an employer is found guilty of violating the OSHAct.


In light of the Supreme Court's decision, what should CWA members who are faced with an imminent danger situation do?

The Supreme Court has said that a worker may refuse unsafe work where she/he has refused the job in good faith. Good faith may be interpreted as an honest belief that the job was unsafe and unusually and objectively dangerous.

Good faith can be demonstrated by the manner by which you refuse unsafe work:

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Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are toxic and persistent chemicals primarily used as insulating fluids in electrical equipment like transformers in power plants, industrial plants, telecommunications and utility lines, and in large buildings across the country. PCBs have a heavy liquid, oil-like consistency. The properties that make them commercially attractive are:

 

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CWA's more than 500,000 members employed in office environments are exposed to many work-related occupational safety and health hazards. In coordination with the Union's Occupational Safety and Health Department, local leaders and members have identified many of these offices as containing hazardous and unhealthful materials. A primary office safety and health problem is indoor air pollution.

Air Quality

An indoor air pollution problem exists when a limited amount of fresh air is circulated throughout the office (tight building syndrome), air is circulated at too fast a rate within the workplace, toxic substances are present in the office environment, or outside air circulated into the workplace is polluted.

There are several variables that contribute to indoor air pollution. Such factors include the use of chemicals like formaldehyde in carpets and furniture; carbon monoxide given off by cigarette smoke and outside traffic; polychlorinated biphenyls contained in electrical transformers; radiation from building insulation; ozone from copiers; and solvents used in cleaners, glues, copiers; and the ventilation system itself.

Also, there are natural causes for indoor air pollution. For example, humans exhale carbon dioxide, which in small quantities is not toxic, but may become hazardous if high concentrations are allowed to accumulate. Micro-organisms or bacteria may also be present within the ventilation system. If micro-organisms do develop, they may spread throughout the entire workplace or building by means of the ventilation system.

In part, air quality problems are created and compounded by the "sealed buildings" in which many people work. The design of these buildings, intended to reduce energy costs, is being identified as a major source or contributor to worker-reported health symptoms.

Another reason for poor air quality may be inadequate ventilation. As noted, the amount of fresh air and its cleanliness are important factors in determining air quality. An efficient, well-maintained ventilation system will circulate and substitute fresh air for used air. Although ventilation systems are not designed to remove large amounts of air contaminants, the ventilation system may sufficiently reduce the level of air pollution.

In the case of redesigned "open space" offices, severe ventilation problems may exist. It is not uncommon to see partitions and walls filling previously "open space" offices. Although such spatial divisions may provide needed privacy, CWA members may notice that their work area contains dead or polluted air. This situation is caused because there is inadequate circulation of fresh air. Most often these conditions result from either not having supply and exhaust vents within each separate room or work area or from inadequate maintenance of the ventilation system. To ensure adequate ventilation, the employer should design or redesign the office environment so that each work area has properly operating supply and exhaust vents.

Health Effects

Many health symptoms that office workers experience are promoted or caused by indoor air pollution. Physical symptoms such as headaches, sinus discomfort, upper respiratory congestion, and eye irritation are the result of contaminated air. Also, in some cases, indoor air pollution may cause serious infections like Legionnaires' Disease, a type of pneumonia.

In addition, worker health symptoms such as colds, headaches, drowsiness, irritation, and irregular breathing may be brought on as the result of temperature extremes, improper humidity levels, and too little or too much air circulation. Workplace temperatures should be maintained between 68 degrees - 75 degress Fahrenheit and humidity levels between 30% - 60%. In addition, drafts caused by too much air circulation should be avoided.

Compounding the noted health symptoms may be job stress. In part, due to various aspects of office automation, the most stressful elements of office work are increasing. Health symptoms associated with job stress include psychological and physical strains such as frustration, anxiety, irritability, anger, depression, stomach or gastro-intestinal disturbances, and muscle and psychological tension. These symptoms may be promoted by poor indoor quality.

Solving Ventilation Problems

A primary factor in the prevention of health symptoms is an efficient, properly designed and operating ventilation system. The ventilation system determines the quality of the indoor air by controlling the amount of air that is added to the workplace atmosphere, the cleanliness of such outside air, and the rate at which the office air and its pollutants are either exhausted to the outside or re-circulated throughout the building.

Having identified office air pollution and ventilation problems, we must consider ways of resolving them. Following are some suggestions:

First, worker health symptoms and their causes need to be identified. Discussions with workers, review of employer-maintained records of worker injuries and illnesses, and development, distribution, and analysis of a brief health questionnaire should accomplish this need.

Talking with co-workers is one of the easiest ways to identify the occurrence and, sometimes, causes of employee health symptoms. Requested information might include the use of contaminants within the workplace, the occurrence and type of health symptoms, and the time of the day, week, and year when health symptoms occur most frequently.

Employer-maintained records of workplace injuries and illnesses should be requested and reviewed. Quite often, such information will indicate the occurrence of patterns of similar health symptoms caused or promoted by air pollution and improper ventilation.

A health questionnaire should be developed and distributed to all concerned workers. Such a tool should identify the number of people affected; specify ages and job descriptions of involved workers; determine where they are located within the office; indicate when the symptoms occur (time of day, day of week, and time of year); provide a list of specific health symptoms or illnesses; identify all machines operated in the workplace; indicate the type of outside air pollution; and identify potential sources of job stress.

Second, identification of contaminant sources is often crucial to determining the cause(s) of worker health symptoms. Such information can sometimes be obtained by requesting copies of air monitoring data from the employer. If monitoring data is not available, yet a high number of health symptoms have been reported, the Union representative should request that the employer have air monitoring tests conducted. Review of this data may identify potentially hazardous sources of contamination and resultant worker health symptoms. However, when contaminant concentrations are very low, monitoring data may not explain the observed or reported health symptoms.

If no contaminant sources are found, it is still possible that an indoor air pollution problem exists. Excessive re-circulation of air leads to "stale air" conditions. Stale air has higher levels of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide (produced from human breathing and cigarette smoke, respectively) than outside air. Stale air may also be a problem when ventilation is not sufficient to account for an increase in the number of workers in the area.

As noted, improper temperature and humidity levels, and too little or too much air circulation may also contribute to worker health complaints. Temperature levels should range from 68 degrees - 75 degrees Fahrenheit and humidity levels between 30% and 60%. In addition, drafts caused by too much air circulation should be avoided. Maintenance of proper temperatures and humidity levels and proper air circulation will help to reduce the occurrence of upper respiratory symptoms, and, possibly, skin rashes.

Third, the condition of the ventilation system should be documented. Copies of maintenance records should be requested. Analysis of this information will indicate whether equipment is routinely serviced and operating properly.

In addition, ventilation system design operating standards, as well as minimum fresh outside air requirements, are provided by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). The ASHRAE standard endorses the importance of worker complaints in judging indoor air quality. ASHRAE defines acceptable air quality as:

"Air in which there is no known contaminants at harmful concentrations and with which a substantial majority (80% or more) of the people exposed do not express dissatisfaction."

ASHRAE calls for office environments to be provided with 20 cubic feet of fresh outside air per minute per person (cfm/person).

Also, ASHRAE states that 1/10 the OSHA air contaminant levels should be used when evaluating air sampling or monitoring results. This reduction is based on the fact that OSHA standards apply to healthy workers, whereas office buildings allow access to the general population, including the very young, the sick, and the old. Employers should ensure that ventilation systems meet ASHRAE guidelines.

After gathering materials to identify worker health symptoms and their causes, this information should be organized and presented to management for resolution. Remedies for health symptoms might include the adjustment of air handling equipment and variation in the amount of re-circulation. Also, the rate of air turnover can be adjusted. Ventilation ducts can be added to provide better distribution of the air. The number of workers in an area can also be varied to allow adherence to the ASHRAE 20 cfm/person requirements.

What Can You Do?

All CWA members should make sure that their employer is maintaining a safe and healthful workplace, i.e., one that is free of hazardous contaminants and supplied with clean, fresh air. The key to making the workplace safe for CWA members is strong, active local safety and health committees. The committee can identify dangerous conditions at the workplace and discuss them with management. If the employer refuses to cooperate, the committee can request an OSHA inspection. The committee should always coordinate its activities through local officers, the CWA Representative, and negotiated safety and health committees. In addition, CWA members may obtain information and assistance by contacting the:

CWA Occupational Safety and Health Department
501 Third Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20001-2797
Webpage: www.cwasafetyandhealth.org
Telephone: (202) 434-1160.

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Ideally, employers should provide employees with workplaces free of safety and health hazards. However, due to the nature of a given work operation, employees may be exposed to potentially hazardous chemical and physical agents. It is not uncommon for CWA members to be exposed to such work conditions. This is particularly true for members employed in the high hazard bargaining units and occupations that the Union represents (e.g., manufacturing, telecommunications service and installation, printing, and health care jobs).

As stated in the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, employers must provide workplace controls to protect employees from exposures to hazardous substances. The type(s) of control measures that may be implemented will depend on the nature of exposure, the substance, and its route of entry into the body: inhalation (breathing), absorption (skin), and ingestion (swallowing).

Before making a decision on what type of control measure(s) to implement, the circumstances surrounding the problem(s) should be thoroughly examined. For example, in the case of an air contaminant, an exposure problem may be minimized/eliminated by reducing the amount of the contaminant in the breathing zone. An analysis of the source of the toxic, the path by which the contaminant travels to the worker, and the employee's work pattern should provide the worker with information enabling her/him to select or be provided with the most protective control measure.

Control Measures

The best method of controlling potential occupational safety and health hazards is through the implementation of engineering controls. Engineering controls are design methods that prevent harmful worker exposure. Ideally, the proper time to establish engineering controls is when the workplace is being designed. However, quite often this is either not done or not possible. In these circumstances, the following control measures should be considered.

Closed Systems- Where possible, work operations that involve potentially hazardous exposures should be conducted in closed systems. Closed systems allow for materials to be brought into the workplace in sealed containers and emptied into storage tanks, thus preventing employee contact or exposure to the substance. Unfortunately, not all operations lend themselves to such an approach.

Substitution- Quite often, a less hazardous substance or process than that currently being used may be available. Where a problem exists, CWA members should advise the employer of this consideration. Useful examples of less hazardous substitutes would include mineral spirits for trichloroethylene and trichloroethane, as well as non-asbestos products to replace asbestos materials.


Changing A Process- Another control method would be altering or changing a work operation to minimize worker exposure. For example, vapor degreasing could be accomplished with the use of dip tanks with adequate ventilation controls rather than having the worker hand wash parts in open containers.

Isolation- Where possible, potentially hazardous work operations might be isolated or enclosed to reduce employee exposures. An example of this process would be utilizing acoustic panels to reduce noise. Isolation equipment may be operated by remote control from some protected location. The degree of isolation should be determined by the toxicity of the substance, the amount and duration of the contaminant exposure, and the involved work patterns.

Wet Methods- Wetting a particular substance will reduce the generation of dust. This control method is widely utilized because it is a simple, effective, and an inexpensive way to minimize potential health hazards. In order that this control method works most effectively, use of a wetting agent may be required and proper disposal procedures should be used.

Local Exhaust Ventilation- Local exhaust ventilation is a system located at the source of contaminant generation that captures the hazardous substance(s) before it/they escape into the workplace environment. Local exhaust ventilation systems are a preferred control method because they remove air contaminants rather than just dilute them. Local exhaust systems should be used when substitution, changing the process, or enclosure are not compatible with the work operation.

General Ventilation- General or dilution ventilation systems add or remove air from the workplace to keep the concentration of air contaminants below hazardous levels. General ventilation consists of the airflow through open windows or doors, fans, and roof ventilators. It should be remembered that general ventilation control only dilutes air contaminants unlike local exhaust ventilation that removes air contaminants. Therefore, general ventilation should not be used to remove great amounts of air contaminants from the workplace environment or to control major localized sources of air contamination. When using general ventilation systems, care should be taken not to re-circulate the toxic substances throughout the workplace.

Personal Protective Equipment- When it is not possible or feasible to eliminate hazardous levels of air contaminants from the workplace, it may become necessary for the employer to provide personal protective equipment so that toxic exposures may be minimized. However, personal protective equipment should only be used when it is not possible to isolate a work process, provide ventilation, or use another more protective control method. Personal protective equipment does nothing to minimize or eliminate the source of the problem, i.e., the hazard. Thus, if the personal protective equipment fails to work properly, the worker suffers immediate exposure to the toxic substance.

Personal protective devices include eye and face protection such as safety glasses, goggles, and face shields; hearing protection like ear muffs and ear plugs; protective clothing such as gloves, gauntlets, coveralls, aprons, and boots; protective creams and lotions; and respirators. Importance must be placed upon the employer furnishing the proper type of personal protective equipment for specific work operations and exposures. For example, when an employee is working with a particular solvent, she/he should be provided the proper gloves to prevent the substance from seeping through the glove and causing harmful skin contact.

More and more, employers have begun emphasizing the use of respirators rather than implementing adequate engineering controls. Respirators should not be viewed as a substitute for engineering controls. Rather, when used, they should be seen as offering only short-term or emergency protection. An approved respirator should be appropriate for the particular hazard or work environment in which the respirator is to be utilized (e.g., dust masks should not be used to protect against chemical exposures). In addition, the type of air contaminant, it's expected maximum concentration, the possibility of oxygen deficiency, the life of the respirator, and available escape routes should be determined before the work is initiated. Before supplying employees with respirators, employers should give them complete physical examinations to determine workers' adaptability to respirators and provide them thorough respirator protection training programs.

Personal Hygiene- Employers should make hand-washing facilities readily available to employees working with or near toxic substances. It is important that workers be able to wash promptly in case of accidental splashes of toxic substances. Also, where called for, convenient access to emergency showers should be provided. Eating and storage or drinking of foods and liquids should be forbidden where toxic substances are used.

Regulated areas, where biological hazards or proven or suspected cancer-causing agents are used or handled, should be properly marked to inform workers of the potential hazards and the regular and emergency procedures required. Employers should also provide workers who enter such areas with a place to change protective clothing and equipment.

Medical Controls- Medical controls should be an extremely important part of an employer's safety and health or medical program. Such controls would include a physical examination for all workers, consisting of a thorough medical and work history including exposures to toxic and hazardous substances. Audiometric tests should be a part of the physical examination. Results from these exams provide baseline data that, with the results of periodic exams, allow for the detection of the harmful effects of particular work operations and the evaluation of their severity. Medical records must be maintained by the employer and made available to requesting employees.

In addition to periodic medical examinations, workplace exposure monitoring tests should be conducted on a periodic, regular basis. Instrumentation that continuously monitors the work environment for airborne contaminants and triggers an alarm when concentrations exceed safe levels should be obtained and used. Use of information from both physical examinations and workplace exposure monitoring can be an effective method of discovering potential occupational safety and health hazards.

Administrative Controls- An employer might decide to use administrative controls to minimize occupational exposure to toxic substances. One type of administrative control would be a reduction of work periods for jobs that involve exposure to toxics. For example, by transferring an employee who has worked four hours at an operation involving exposure to hazardous substances/agents to work at a less hazardous task for four hours, the worker's toxic exposure is minimized. Administrative controls should not be viewed as long-term substitutes for engineering controls, and other more effective methods of minimizing exposures to hazardous substances.

Maintenance- All employers should make sure that adequate maintenance schedules are established and adhered to. Poor maintenance of workplace equipment usually causes poor operation of machinery and, in turn, increased workplace accidents and illnesses. A regular maintenance schedule should include periodic shutdowns of all equipment. In addition, employees performing maintenance should be provided with the necessary personal protective equipment.

Good Housekeeping- It makes sense for companies to establish and maintain good housekeeping practices. Proper good housekeeping procedures include a thorough cleaning of the workplace, as well as adequate washing, toilet, eating, and waste disposal facilities. Employers should ensure that toxic substance spills are cleaned immediately. Work practices should also be in effect for the safe disposal of toxic chemicals and other hazardous substances.

Training- All employers representing CWA members should have effective training programs that deal with employees' working conditions. Part of this training should include information on the types of occupational hazards, adequate coverage of personal protective equipment, a medical surveillance program, and emergency situations. Where companies have not formulated such a training program, CWA-represented workers should encourage them to do so.

What Can You Do?

All CWA members should make sure that their employer is maintaining a safe and healthful workplace. The key to making the workplace safe for all CWA members is strong, active local safety and health committees. The committee can identify dangerous conditions at the workplace and discuss them with management. If the employer refuses to cooperate, the committee can request an OSHA inspection. The committee should always coordinate its activities through the local officers, the CWA Representatives, and negotiated safety and health committees.

In addition, CWA members may obtain information and assistance by contacting the:

CWA Occupational Safety and Health Department
501 Third Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20001-2797
Webpage: www.cwasafetyandhealth.org
Phone: (202) 434-1160.
 

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Freon is a generally colorless, non-flammable gas or liquid. It is primarily used as refrigerant and polymer intermediates. Freon is also used in the degreasing of electrical equipment, in aerosol propellants, anesthetics, fire extinguishers, foam blowing agents, and in dry cleaning. Freon is used because of its low toxicity to humans. However, freon is a significant environmental toxin.

Health Effects
Freon is an irritant to the eyes and respiratory passages. Contact with skin may cause dermatitis of skin rashes. Exposure to high concentrations of the chemical can cause dizziness and lack of coordination. Asphyxiation may even be the result of freon exposure.

Freon is taken into the body by inhalation of vapor or gas.

Medical Surveillance
There are no specific diagnostic tests for the toxic effects which occur at high concentrations of freon exposure. Employers should provide all employees who work with or around freon with annual physical exams. (If the employer does not presently give such exams, these should be negotiated into the collective bargaining agreement.) All physical exams should consider possible cardiac or heart effects from acute exposure.

Personal Protective Equipment

Employers should provide exposed workers with the following personal protective equipment:

1. non-porous gloves, aprons, and goggles; and
    
2. the workplace should also be well-ventilated.

What Can You Do?
The key to making the workplace safe for all CWA members is strong, active Local safety and health committees. The committee can identify dangerous conditions at the workplace and discuss them with management. If the company refuses to cooperate, the committee can request an OSHA inspection. The committee should always coordinate its activities through the Local officers, the CWA Representatives, and negotiated safety and health committees.
 

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Vinyl chloride is a flammable gas at room temperature and is usually encountered as a cooled liquid. The colorless liquid forms a vapor which has a pleasant odor. Vinyl chloride is used as a vinyl monomer in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride and other resins. It is also used as a chemical intermediate and as a solvent.

The danger comes during the production process. Three basic steps are necessary to the production of vinyl products. First, the vinyl chloride, or monomer, is produced in a closed process. The vinyl chloride monomer is then shipped as a compressed liquified gas to plants that produce the polyvinyl chloride resin. Batches of vinyl chloride are polymerized by mixing them with catalysts in giant vats or reactors. After drying, the polyvinyl chloride resins are compounded by the addition of stabilizers, lubricants, and plasticizers. The fabrication end of the polyvinyl chloride industry covers a huge range of processes in which the polyvinyl chloride is turned into a myriad of finished products.

Health Effects

Vinyl chloride gas is absorbed by inhalation. Skin absorption may also be another route of entry. Vinyl chloride is a skin irritant causing a skin rash or contact dermatitis. Contact with the liquid may also cause frostbite upon evaporation. Contact with the eyes will produce immediate and severe irritation.

Vinyl chloride depresses the central nervous system causing symptoms which resemble mild alcohol intoxication. Lightheadedness, nausea, and dulling of visual and auditory (hearing) responses may develop in acute exposures. Severe vinyl chloride exposure has resulted in worker death.

Chronic or long-term exposure may result in skin changes and liver damage. Vinyl chloride is considered a human carcinogen. specifically, the chemical has caused cancers of the brain, liver, and lungs which normally cannot be diagnosed until the disease is incurable. In addition, workers may not show any symptoms until at least fifteen years after the initiation of exposure.

Medical Tests

Presently, there are no special medical tests to diagnose the hazardous consequences of vinyl chloride exposure. However, CWA members who work with vinyl chloride must be provided with employer paid periodic physical examinations. Such exams should emphasize liver function and palpation. Liver scans have been successful in detecting liver tumors. Medical histories should include alcohol consumption, past liver ailments or infections, exposure to agents which may be harmful to the liver, drugs and chemicals, past blood transfusions, and past hospitalizations. Long-term medical follow- up for workers exposed to vinyl chloride is a must.

When a CWA member who works with vinyl chloride suffers bad health, he/she should consult a physician as soon as possible. The worker should mention to the doctor that he/she works with vinyl chloride.

In cases of acute poisoning due to vinyl chloride, the victim should be taken into fresh air or a well-ventilated room. Clothes contaminated by vinyl chloride should be taken off and removed from the area. If the worker stops breathing, artificial respiration should be given. A doctor should be called immediately.

Controlling the Hazard

The best workplace control to vinyl chloride exposure is substitution of a less hazardous and harmful material. Although less protective enclosure of the process might also be considered. Where this is not possible, CWA members should utilize employer provided personal protective equipment such as non-porous gloves, goggles, non-porous aprons, sleeves, boots, and, where vinyl chloride levels cannot meet the OSHA Standard, respiratory protection.

The OSHA Standard

The OSHA Standard applies to the manufacture, reaction, packaging, repackaging, storage, handling, or use of vinyl chloride or polyvinyl chloride in such operations as molding, extrusion, mixing, and calendering. The Standard does not apply to the handling or use of fabricated products made of polyvinyl chloride such as thermoforming or blister packaging.

The Standard sets the following permissible exposure limits:

1. No worker may be exposed to vinyl chloride at concentrations greater than one part per million (ppm) average over any eight hour period.
   
    
2. No worker may be exposed to vinyl chloride at concentrations greater than five ppm (action level) over any period not exceeding fifteen minutes.
   
    
3. No worker may be exposed to vinyl chloride by direct contact with liquid vinyl chloride.

In addition, the Standard mandates the employer to initiate a monitoring program, to eliminate hazardous exposure to vinyl chloride through engineering controls, to supply respiratory protection where necessary, to institute a comprehensive training program related to the hazards of vinyl chloride and precautions for its safe use, to initiate a medical surveillance program for all exposed CWA members, to post legible signs where vinyl chloride is used and to legibly label vinyl chloride containers, and to begin recordkeeping and reporting procedures relative to worker exposure to vinyl chloride.

What Can You Do?
All CWA members should make sure that their employer is maintaining a safe and healthful workplace. The key to making the workplace safe for all CWA members is strong, active Local safety and health committees. The committee can identify dangerous conditions at the workplace and discuss them with management. If the company refuses to cooperate, the committee can request an OSHA inspection. The committee should always coordinate its activities through the Local officers, the CWA Representatives, and negotiated safety and health committees.

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The Physiology of Stress
Occupational stress is one of the major health hazards of the modern workplace (in which CWA members are employed). It accounts for much of the physical illness, substance abuse, and family problems experienced by millions of blue and white collar workers. Also, occupational stress and stressful working conditions has been linked to low productivity, absenteeism, and increased rates of accidents on and off the job.

Work is a central part of human life. It is the expression of the basic need to accomplish, to create, to feel satisfaction, and to feel meaningful. Rewarding work is an important and positive part of our lives. However, when work denies people an opportunity to utilize their creativity, intelligence, and decision-making ability, it causes stress.

The traditional response of management has been to "blame the victim," defining stress as an individual or "personal" problem that workers bring from home to work. In contrast to this approach which blames people for their inability to fit into an inhumane work environment, it is important to analyze the structure of job requirements and social relationships at work as the primary sources of stress.

With the introduction of new technologies, many jobs have become more fragmented and job tasks have been narrowed, leaving workers more disconnected from the final product. This process of "deskilling" has created increased levels of boredom, making work less challenging and less satisfying for many workers. Offices are becoming factories with rows of workers connected to computers that are capable of monitoring every key punched. The knowledge that every minute of one's working day is being recorded has intensified the pressure of the job, which, in turn, has led to an increased rate of heart disease among office and clerical workers.

Although office work has always been stressful, recent scientific studies and surveys have helped focus attention on the issue of job stress. The Framingham Heart Study, completed in February, 1980, found that female clerical and secretarial workers developed coronary heart disease at twice the rate of other workers. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) found that operators of computers experienced greater job stress than any other occupational group that NIOSH had ever studied. The CWA/North Carolina Occupational Safety and Health Project Office Workers Stress (computer) Survey found that computer use and job stress may result in the occurrence of chest pain among CWA members who use computers.

Further, the landmark CWA National Occupational Stress Study (1990) found that one stressor, electronic performance monitoring, was a major cause/promoter of physical and psychological health complaints. Monitored workers reported more boredom, high tension, extreme anxiety and depression, anger, and severe fatigue than non-monitored workers. Also, monitored workers reported more musculoskeletal problems (i.e., wrist, arm, shoulder, neck and back problems) and headaches than non-monitored workers.

In 1992, NIOSH reported the findings of a scientific study regarding computer use and associated musculoskeletal health effects involving CWA and US West. This investigation identified several factors such as fear of being replaced by computers, increasing work pressure, lack of job diversity with little decision making opportunity, high information processing demands, and surges in workload as being related to computer musculoskeletal repetitive motion illnesses.

In addition to the above variables, uncertainty about one's future (occupation), lack of co-worker and supervisor support were found to be associated with the cause of computer work environment musculoskeletal repetitive motion health symptoms.

During 1998, CWA's Occupational Safety and Health Department and the School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University completed a major computer study involving Union leaders and members of Locals 2101 and 2150 located in Baltimore, Maryland. The nearly 250 participating members were employed as service representatives by Bell Atlantic and American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). The scientific investigation, initiated in 1996, addressed the relationship among occupational stress, stress at home, and health symptoms of musculoskeletal disorders or repetitive motion illnesses.

The findings from the study indicated that computer workplace repetitive motion health symptoms involving the hands, elbows, shoulders, neck, back, and legs occurred among a large number of participants. In addition, the scientific data found that job demand occupational stressors (e.g., constant and fast pace of the job, sales and adherence requirements, and scheduling) were directly related to the occurrence of computer workplace musculoskeletal disorder symptoms. Of particular importance, the investigation did not find any relationship between non-occupational stressors (e.g., stress at home) and the causation of repetitive motion health symptoms.

Occupational or job stress may be defined as a "mechanism whereby the human body attempts to adapt to the environment." The body has a normal mechanism for dealing with stressful situations which is known as the "fight or flight" response. As soon as the brain senses danger, it sends messages (electrical, chemical, hormonal) which stimulate the extra energy needed to fight the danger or run away from it. The stress cycle always includes the danger stimulus, the removal of the danger, and a state of relaxation.

The "fight or flight" response is extremely functional when we confront short-term specific dangers. When the danger or challenge is removed or has been dealt with, the body returns to a state of equilibrium.

Many of the sources of stress at work have a different character--they are more subtle, more pervasive, and come from a variety of factors. Whether it's increased workload, eyestrain from staring into computers, unpredictable disciplinary action by a supervisor, or never being complimented about the quality of work we produce, these all cause the "fight or flight" response to be triggered. Since we have "gotten used to" working in stressful environments, however, we may be unaware of the body's reaction. Yet even if we are not conscious of it, the demands of being in a constant "on-alert" state takes its toll on our physical health and emotional well-being.

When the cause of the stress can be identified, is of short duration, and can be responded to by a specific set of actions which eliminate the cause, this is a healthy stress reaction. However, when the source of the stress is not identifiable, becomes excessive, repeated, prolonged, or continuous, it becomes "dis- stress" and creates unhealthy physiological and psychological reactions.

To understand why exposure to stress, especially prolonged stress, can cause ill health, it is helpful to know what changes take place in the body during the "fight or flight" response. The heart starts beating faster in order to get more blood to the muscles, adrenaline and other hormones are released to provide more energy, additional stomach acids are secreted, and respiration increases. All these changes are intended to prepare the body for action. When these bodily processes are constantly functioning, however, our bodies are working overtime. Under these circumstances, the entire system is weakened and the weakest spots are the first to show signs of strain. If this burden continues over long periods of time without adequate chances for relaxation, the entire body may start to break down.

Job control determines how much or how little control a worker has over his/her job. It can be defined in terms of one's ability to make decisions about how work is done and the ability to use a range of skills on the job.

Job demand determines how much or how little production or productivity pressures there are on the worker and the quality of the physical work environment.

Examples of job control stressors include:

Examples of job demand stressors include:

The Psychology of Stress
For most people work is the central part of their lives. It's the place where they spend most of their waking hours and most of their energy. Moreover, how we judge ourselves and measure our self-worth is very much determined by the work we do. The status and rewards that society attaches to jobs is one of the primary ways others see us. Therefore, if work is unfulfilling in that it prevents workers from fully realizing their own potential and developing their human capacities, the nature of work becomes a primary stressor in our lives. Under these conditions, we experience an important aspect of our daily lives as an assault on our dignity as human beings.

The myth that our social and economic system is based on rewarding merit often results in people blaming themselves and co-workers for problems they encounter in dealing with stressful working conditions. In turn, management uses this "blame the worker" attitude to control and divide workers upon racial, ethnic, sex, age, religious, and occupational differences.

Keeping workers divided, distrustful, and believing they are different from one another helps frustrate attempts by workers to challenge existing working conditions. Many of these strategies are devised by management consulting firms and then implemented in the workplace. Union-busting courses are now a multi-million dollar yearly enterprise. So keeping workers divided has become big business and it is up to workers and their unions to make sure that the natural alliances within the workforce are maintained and strengthened.

Besides the existing divisions which have been identified as some of those often used by management to keep workers divided, the belief that "you get what you deserve" also keeps us from relating to co-workers. How does this happen? When we are feeling inadequate, upset, insecure, or threatened, we often hesitate to talk about it, due to the belief that we are the only ones experiencing these problems. In so doing, we keep ourselves from connecting with co-workers and the Union and end up feeling isolated. Learning to appreciate co-workers as allies is the first step in overcoming the divisions and isolation. Moreover, it is only through the Union that workers can effectively implement common strategies to challenge stressful working conditions.

Among the major negative effects of job stress are its impact on a person's self-image and self-esteem, which in turn, affects their relationship with family, friends, and co-workers. The problems last far longer than the time we spend at work and are not easily left behind at the end of the day. So analyzing working conditions as a primary source of stress is an important first step in overcoming it, especially because in many situations the long-term effects show up in our private lives and the workpla